Unit 1: Introduction to Research and Formulating a Hypothesis

Introduction to the Unit

We often say that we live in a scientific age - but what is science? Science can be regarded as public knowledge, or the study of 'public objects' - objects that make up external reality, that are accessible to observers with suitable training and not dependent on private insights. It is easy to assume that science has always been with us. The concept of scientific research is now so pervasive that it is easy to forget that it was introduced into the UK in its present form only after the First World War.

Our theoretical understanding of how science works is still developing and this unit is designed to help you to grasp the issues involved. The theoretical basis of research and how appropriately conducted research can lead to knowledge will be the main focus in this unit. The importance of how to formulate a hypothesis (in deductive research) or a research question (in inductive research) will be explored.

The unit consists of 2 sections: Section 1 - Philosophy of science and research Section 2 - Formulating a hypothesis or a research question

Aims of the Unit

• To introduce the philosophical background to science and how this relates to the practical matter of research
• To describe how research is classified
• To show how to develop hypothesis or a research question

Learning Outcomes

By the end of the unit you should be able to:

• discuss the theoretical basis of science and what is meant by 'public knowledge'
• explain the nature and types of research studies
• explain the importance of hypotheses in modern scientific thinking
• Develop a hypothesis or a research question

Required Resources

Readings and videos:

To complete the work in this unit you will need extracts from the following readings, which are linked to the unit text:

• Chalmers, A.F. (2013) What is this thing called Science (4th ed)
• Craig, E. (ed.) (2000) Routledge Concise Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Ziman, J. (1968) Public Knowledge - The social dimension of science

Optional Reading:

New Scientist - Philosophy of Science 2000 The Truth is Out There by Michael Cross

You will watch the following videos:

• Philosophy of Science Available from: Play Video
• What is Science, available from:Play Video

Planning Study Time

This unit together with the associated reading and contributions to discussion forums should take you about 15 hours to complete.

Key Terms Used in this Unit

• Data information: a series of numerical or other results obtained by observation
• Deduction: A process of reasoning whereby it is shown that a conclusion must logically follow from a set of premises.
• Epistemology: The study of the nature, generation and validation of knowledge.
• Falsification: Demonstration that a hypothesis or theory is not true. In the hypothesis-deduction model of science it is helpful to consider this as destruction of general theories by particular instances.
• Hypothesis: A possible explanation for a group of facts or observations that may explain the relationships between them.
• Induction: The process of reasoning whereby a general conclusion is drawn from particular instances.
• Logic: The science of reasoning; may include the process of inferring a general law or principle from the observation of particular instances and the process of explaining particular instances in terms of general laws. Commonly but not universally considered to include both deduction and induction.
• 'Normal' science: The activities and investigations undertaken within a paradigm; has been characterised as 'routine additions to knowledge'.
• Paradigm: The whole set of theories, assumptions and beliefs within which a field of science operates - sometimes called a world-view.
• Paradigm shift: The alteration in a field of science that results from the development of a new paradigm. Such a shift, if accepted, renders established theories and assumptions untenable. Paradigm shift has followed, for example, the theories of Einstein and Darwin.
• Research: Work which makes a distinct contribution to the knowledge base or practice of science through original thought or the discovery of new facts, or by the application of existing theories in new situations of significance.
• Results: The observations made or data collected in the course of an experiment or other investigation.
• Theory: A hypothesis or set of hypotheses from which many predictions have been deduced, all of which have been supported by experiment or observation. A theory represents the currently accepted explanation for a phenomenon or phenomena.
• Verification: Demonstration that a hypothesis or theory is true.

Section 1 - Philosophy of Science and Research

Science is an academic discipline and while much scientific activity occurs in university departments and research institutes, the results of this activity impact on the wider community and influence the way we live. In some ways science has a particular authority in that it is seen as independent of human frailties. The perception of science in Kipling's 'The secret of the machines' also illustrates the feeling of threat or 'otherness' that permeates much science journalism.

But remember, please, the Law by which we live, We are not built to comprehend a lie We can neither love nor pity nor forgive, If you make a slip in handling us you die! (Kipling, quoted in Mackay, 1977)

However, science is a human activity and one which, like no other, has enabled humans to progress and improve their lives. Published accounts of situations where people have sometimes made bad choices obscure the fact that they now have choices. For example, parents may now choose not to vaccinate their children but our ancestors did not have the choice. For most of us a world without science and scientists would be incomprehensible.

This has not always been the case. The term 'scientist' was first used by William Whewell in 1840 and has passed into general use (MacKay, 1977). The 19th century is a convenient period to search for the origins of modern science and it is interesting to see how it was defined then.

Defining Science

Knowledge; comprehension or understanding of facts or principles. Knowledge gained by systematic observation or experiment, and reasoning; knowledge coordinated, arranged and systematized; also the prosecution of truth as thus known, both in the abstract and as a historical development.

Knowledge regarding any special group of objects, coordinated, arranged and systematized; what is known concerning a subject systematically arranged; a branch of knowledge; as in the science of botany, of astronomy, of etymology, of metaphysics; mental science; physical science; in a narrow sense one of the physical sciences, as distinguished from mathematics, metaphysics, etc. (The Century Dictionary (Whitney (ed.), 1890))

Introduction to Philosophy of Science

Watch To introduce you to philosophy of science, an interview with an American Philosopher, Professor Hilary Putnam from Harvard University is given below: take 10 minutes to watch this interview, it is a good introduction to philosphy of science and how thinking about science has changed.

Science vs. Other Forms of Knowledge

Is science more than systematized knowledge? How is science different from other forms of 'perceived' knowledge such as religion? In considering this, it is helpful to examine some of the ways in which our view of science has been formulated. John Ziman FRS, originally a theoretical physicist, undertook investigations into reasons for belief in science, the history of science and nature of discovery. The reading activity you are about to undertake presents Ziman's view and will set you thinking about the differences between science and other forms of knowledge.

What is Science?

Activity: Reading Ziman's Essay

Read J. Ziman (1968) wrote the essay 'What is science?' in his book Public Knowledge - The social dimension of science. Read pages 1-3 up to 'Science is the Study of the Material World' and consider the following questions: 1. Do you agree that it is important to maintain the distinction between science and technology? 2. Do you agree with the assumption that science is separate from its products?

Feedback Activity 2

You will probably conclude that the answer to both of these questions is context dependent. In pig and poultry health and production the distinction is less clear than in physics and cosmology. You may wish to think of science as an active process in which theoretical progress and practical progress are interlinked. It seems clear that much of the authority of science is derived from the translation of theoretical knowledge into practical effects.

Activity: Continuing Ziman's Essay

Read Think .. Continuing reading Ziman's essay, up to the heading 'Science is the experimental method' on page 4. To what extent do you think the statement 'Science is the study of the material world' aligns with the basic assumptions considered in Activity 1?