History of English Language and Great Britain: Celtic to Norman period

Old English Language

The inhabitants of Britain at the time of the Roman invasions spoke a Celtic language of which no literary texts remain. This language had remarkably little permanent effect on the English language which later replaced it. Probably Latin was used by Roman soldiers and those town-dwelling Britons who came into frequent contact with them; Celtic was probably spoken in country places, and Celtic languages have survived until today in parts of Wales and of the Highlands in Scotland.

The history of the English language begins with the settlement of the Angles, Saxons and jutes in. Britain. The lack of a political unity among them encouraged the existence of a number of dialects, but the Wessex dialect prevailed over the others. It is sometimes convenient to divide the history of the English language as spoken in England into three periods: Old English (700-1100), Middle English (1100-1450) and Modern English (1450-present day).

The main features of Old English were: inflexional endings; the infinitives of the verbs ending with -an, for example gongan was replaced in Modern English by 'to go', and the stress of words generally as near the beginning as possible. Nonetheless you would have no difficulty in recognising the Old English words mann, wif and cild. You are familiar with the hus in which they libben, the mete they etan and the water they drincan and this bok you are reading.

Middle English Language

During the Middle Ages three languages were spoken in England: it was from the blend of French, Anglo-Saxon and Latin that Middle English (1100-1450) originated. For about two centuries after the Conquest the ruling classes and the aristocracy freely used Norman French, while the conquered continued to talk in their native Anglo-Saxon; Latin was mainly used by the Church and as the language of learning.

Middle English lost almost all of the Anglo-Saxon inflections: the '-s' ending for the plural of nouns and the genitive singular was what remained of the old noun declensions, the definite article 'the' and adjectives became indeclinable, and the 'to' form for infinitives started to be used.

The various origins of the English language give it many synonyms with slight differences in meaning. For example ask (Saxon) is what ordinary people do, "interrogate' (Latin) or (question' (French) is done by officials or superiors. 'Pig'and 'sheep' (Saxon) are the animals looked after by the peasants, 'pork' and 'mutton' (French) is the meat of those animals, eaten by the rich.The Celts

Early Inhabitants of Britain

The history of England is the story of the gradual settlement and colonisation of the islands which then developed into Great Britain. Its prehistoric inhabitants were the dark-haired Iberians. Around 700 BC the fair- or red- haired, blue-eyed Celts began to arrive from north-west Germany. A tribal society, they were skilled at working iron and lived on fishing, hunting and agriculture. Among the most influential Celts were the Druids, who administered religion, justice and the education of the young ( Lab. Reading). The Celts worshipped the natural elements such as the Sun, the Moon, the trees and the rivers. Water was regarded ' as a holy element which generated life and was the door to the world after death.

Roman Invasion of Britain

In 55 BC Julius Caesar (ca. 100-44 BC) invaded Britain, but the actual conquest of the country took place in the years 43-47 AD under the reign of Emperor Claudius (10 BC- AD 54). The Romans introduced their civilisation and language. The most important characteristic of Roman Britain was its towns, connected by roads, many of which still exist today. In AD 409, Emperor Honorius (384-423) withdrew his soldiers from Britain to defend Rome against a Barbarian attack. The Romanised Celts were left to fight alone against some Germanic tribes who invaded the island destroying the Roman British towns. They were the Angles, the Saxons and the Jutes and gave the larger part of Britain its new name: England, that is, the land of the Angles'.

Anglo-Saxon Society

Most Anglo-Saxon invaders were farmers looking for richer lands, but many of them were also deep-sea fishermen used to hunting seals and whales in the stormy ocean. They were organised in family groups, called clans, where the most important social bond was loyalty to the other members and to the lord of the tribe. They exalted physical courage and personal freedom and they also had a highly developed sense of beauty. They made fine ornaments and enjoyed feasting and drinking.

Christianisation of Britain

Britain had been Christian, but as the Anglo-Saxons, who belonged to an older Germanic religion, advanced, Christianity retreated into the western parts of the country. It survived in monastic form in Wales, part of Scotland, and above all in Ireland. At the end of the 6th century Pope Gregory 1 The Great (590-604) sent a monk, Augustine, to bring Christianity back to England. Augustine first went toCanterbury and he became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. Soon monasteries progressed and turned into important centres of communal life and culture.

Viking Invasions

Between the 8th and the 9th centuries the fierce Danes, Vikings who came from Norway and Denmark, invaded Britain and occupied much of the country. King Alfred the Great of Wessex (871-899 won back the occupied territories,. reorganised the army, built a fleet and established fortified centres. He also gave importance to religion and encouraged the writing of a history of England, The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle (> Lab, Listening). The Vikings continued to raid Britain until their king Canute also became king of England. He was succeeded by Edward the Confessor (1042-1066) who devoted his life to religion, including the building and consecration of Westminster Abbey (1065) where his throne can still be seen.

Norman Invasion and Feudalism

In 1066 Willjam, Duke of Normandy, defeated the last Anglo-Saxon king. Harold Il, at Hastings and was crowned King in Westminster Abbey on Christmas day of the same year. Since then nearly all English monarchs have been crowned in the abbey and several are buried there.

The Normans introduced the French language and tradition. Feudalism, which already existed to some extent, was greatly developed. Under the feudal system the king was the owner of all land, but this was then held by others, called vassals, in return for goods and services, especially military service of about forty days a year. The chief vassals, the barons, received land from the king, and then created other vassals, the knights ( Theme 2) and the villains. The peasants could be villains, who were free but attached to the land on which they were born (the right to the land was passed on from father to son), or serfs, who were almost slaves. While the knight gave military service to his lord in exchange for his land, the peasant's service was in the form of work on his lord's farm.

Growth of Middle Classes

The 13th century was characterised by the growth of trade, the circulation of money and a higher standard of living; however, it was in the 14th century that new middle classes, rural and urban, first appeared upon the political, economic, social, religious,and literary scenes. The century also saw the rise of the minor aristocracy and the formation of the gentry, that is a class of landowners marked by an aristocratic spirit.

Role of the Church in Medieval Society

The church played a fundamental role in medieval society. Despite criticism of corruption among the clergy, brought by movements of reform such as the Lollards, the Church provided consolation for the afflicted, bread for the hungry and assistance for the oppressed. As most people were uneducated, the priest was the only reference point with a world different from their everyday life; little by little the church also became the school, the meeting place, the centre of art and was linked to the rise of the theatre.

Middle English Languages Spoken

Middle English During the Middle Ages three languages were spoken in England: French, Anglo-Saxon and Latin. For about two centuries after the Norman Conquest the ruling classes and the aristocracy freely used Norman French, while the conquered people continued to talk in their native Anglo-Saxon language; Latin was mainly used by the Church and as the language of learning

The Medieval Mindset

The medieval mind Medieval civilisation was essentially religious and based on the belief that the life of the soul after death is the real one, while life on earth is just a period of preparation for it. The medieval world was full of meaning, according to a providential plan in which man had to play the role he had been given. Allegory was the way the medieval mind worked: by its means, what was thought or felt was made visible, the abstract made concrete. Typical of the Middle Ages was the habit of acting in accordance with the position of the planets following the theory of the Egyptian astronomer and geographer Ptolemy (100-170 AD). According to him, the planetary system was Earth- centred, with the planets moving in circular orbits; the concentric spheres were thought to widen out from that of the Earth to the Primum Mobile, or Prime Mover. God was at the top, with the angels surrounding him. This account was widely used as the definitive description of the Solar System until it was overthrown by Copernicus in 1543.

Celtic Britain 1000 BCE

About a thousand years before Christ the Celts spread across Europe, taking over what is now France and Belgium and then crossing into Britain. Celtic Europe was dominated by three main groups: the Gauls (northern France), the Britons (Wales, Cornwall) and the Gaels (Ireland, Scotland). They spoke a vaguely common language which is much older than English. The religion of the Celtic people of Britain wasDruidism and its most important divinity was the sun god. Stonehenge in the southwest of England may have been connected with their worship of the sun.

Roman Invasion 43 CE

One hundred years after raids in 55 and 54 BCE under Julius Caesar, the Romans conquered the island under Emperor Claudius (43-54 c. CE). Roman Britain included present-day England and Wales. Unable to overcome the fierce Picts of 'Caledonia' (Scotland), the Romans built a wall to defend the province of 'Britannia' under Emperor Hadrian. Hadrian's Wall runs from coast to coast marking the northernmost frontier of the Roman Empire. The Romans brought their civilisation to Britain, building towns, roads, stone villas and aqueducts. They also brought their language (Latin) and Christianity.

End of Roman Occupation and Anglo-Saxon England 410

For nearly 400 years southern Britain was part of the Roman world. The last Roman soldiers left Britain in 410 CE when the legions were withdrawn to fight on the continent. New invaders now arrived from across the North Sea. These were Germanic tribes of Angles, Saxons and Jutes, who spoke dialects of a language we now call 'Old English. English speakers today cannot understand this Anglo-Saxon language but we still find traces of its vocabulary in modern English. Anglo-Saxon vocabulary is generally mono-syllabic and refers to common fields like the body, animals, family relationshios and daily activities.

Anglo-Saxon Heptarchy 660-800

Over the centuries the Germanic invaders fought to conquer territories until Anglo- Saxon England was divided into seven kingdoms: Kent, Northumbria, East Anglia, Mercia, Essex, Wessex and Sussex. This period is known as the 'Heptarchy' (660-800).

Viking Raids 793

Raids by seaborne Viking (Scandinavian) warriors began at the end of the eighth century. In 793 Viking raiders attacked the monastery of Lindisfarne, on the coast of Northumbria. Over the next few decades many monasteries in the north were destroyed. The remaining monks fled to Kells in Ireland with a gospel book, probably produced in lona and now known as the Book of Kells.

Alfred the Great 871-900

As the Vikings prepared large armies ready to conquer the whole island, king Alfred united the Anglo-Saxon people against the Danes. The Danes maintained possession of north-eastern England - the Danelaw - but left Wessex undisturbed. Alfred initiated