The Global Status of the English Language: History and Linguistic Concepts

English as a Lingua Franca

English serves as a "lingua franca," a common language used by people with different native languages which isn't defined by its grammar, vocabulary size, or historical significance; in fact it becomes global because of the power of the people who speak it, particularly their political and military power. Economic power also plays a crucial role in maintaining and expanding the language's influence.

Why a Global Language is Needed

The need for a global language has become more evident in the 20th century, especially after the 1950s. International organisations like the United Nations (1945), the World Bank (1945), UNESCO (1946), UNICEF (1946), the World Health Organization (1948), and the International Atomic Energy Agency (1957) have brought many countries together. The necessity for a single lingua franca in these settings helps facilitate communication and avoids the impracticality of multiple translations.

Potential Drawbacks of a Global Language

A global language might create a monolingual elite, making those who speak it natively more powerful and potentially widening the gap between rich and poor. It could also make people lazy about learning other languages, hasten the disappearance of minority languages, and possibly render other languages unnecessary.

Defining English

There are different perspectives on what defines English:

• The Folk View: This involves studying English based on common beliefs about "correctness," examining whether these beliefs are myths, and considering their social impact. For instance, there are many unflattering stereotypes about women's speech, such as women gossiping more than men, which are often rooted in proverbs.

The Academic View of English

• Comparative View Comparing English with other languages to understand its characteristics.
• Variational View Studying the variations in English over time and across regions.
• Structural View Analysing the specific structures of English, like words and sounds.
• Social Context View Examining how English is influenced by and influences social contexts.

The Educational View: For many, studying English means learning to use it practically-to speak, write, and understand it effectively, rather than just understanding it theoretically.

History of the English Language

The word 'English,' originally spelled 'Englisc,' existed long before the term 'England.' In fact, the word 'English' comes from 'Englisc,' named after the Angles, which makes the word older than the UK itself. The Angles and the Saxons and Jutes brought their language to the British Isles after the Romans left around 400 AD. Over the next 500 years, these Germanic invaders pushed the Celtic languages of Britain to the north and west. The area became known as "Engleland," and the newcomers called the native people in the west "wealas" (foreigners), now known as the Welsh

Old English (450 - 1100 AD)

English is part of the West Germanic branch of the Indo-European language family. Its closest relatives are Scots and Frisian. Frisian is spoken by about half a million people in the Dutch province of Friesland, nearby areas of Germany, and a few North Sea islands. In the 5th century AD, the Saxons, Angles, and Jutes arrived from parts of northwest Germany and Denmark. They pushed most Celtic-speaking inhabitants to Scotland, Wales, and Cornwall. Some Celts moved to the Brittany Coast of France, where their descendants still speak Breton. Old English developed from the dialects of these Germanic tribes. Before the Saxons, a mix of Latin and Celtic languages was spoken in Britain due to Roman influence. Latin words from this era include "win" (wine), "candel" (candle), "belt" (belt), and "we all" (wall). Christianity brought more Latin words to English with terms like "church," "bishop," and "baptism." Around 878 AD, Viking invasions introduced many Old Norse words, especially in the north of England, such as "sky," "egg," "cake," and "window." Old English texts include the epic poem "Beowulf," the oldest known English poem, notable for its 3,183 lines. The plural forms "ox/oxen" and "foot/feet" are remnants of Old English grammar. Old English verbs had two tenses (present and past) and three moods (indicative, imperative, subjunctive). There were "strong" verbs that changed vowels (sing/sang) and "weak" verbs that used inflectional endings (love/loved).

Middle English (1100 - 1500)

After William the Conqueror's 1066 AD invasion, French became the language of the ruling class and Latin the language of the Church. English, spoken by the lower classes, evolved by incorporating many French words, especially those related to power and governance like "crown," "castle," and "parliament." Domestic animal names remained English (ox, cow, calf) while meat names derived from French (beef, veal, mutton). During the English Renaissance (early 16th to early 17th century), many Greek and Latin words entered English. The "Great Vowel Shift" (1400-1600) significantly changed English pronunciation, affecting long vowels. Morphological changes included the simplification of verb conjugations and noun gender classes. Syntax also evolved, with a shift from object-verb order to verb-object order.

Modern English (1500 - present)

Early Modern English (1500-1700) saw changes in vowel pronunciation, the silent "e," and uniform spelling. Many new words were borrowed from Greek and Latin. Modern English (1700-now)features a "functional shift," where parts of speech can interchange freely. For example, nouns can become verbs, and verbs can become adjectives, demonstrating the language's adaptability and evolution. Nouns can become verbs= Noun: "I received an email." Verb: "I will email you the details." Verbs can become adjectives= Verb: "The news will excite everyone." Adjective: "This is an exciting opportunity."

What is Semantics?

Semantics is the study of how language represents meaning, It explains how speakers and listeners understand literal meanings through language. Unlike pragmatics, which focuses on context, and semiotics, which studies all types of signs, semantics is strictly about linguistic meaning.

Example of Semantic and Semiotic Levels

Example: "Here is the ring"- Semantic level -Here -indicates a nearby location. -Is -shows existence in a location. -The -suggests both speaker and listener know about this ring. -Ring -identifies a specific object. - Semiotic level: - "Ring" can symbolise a bond, alliance, or vow.

Approaches to Semantics

Semantics has various approaches: -Formal Semantics: Uses propositional logic to connect language to its references. -Cognitive Semantics: Sees language meaning as part of general cognitive functions. -Lexical Semantics: Studies how words convey meaning and relate to sentence meaning.

Example of Pragmatic Level

Example: "Here is the ring" -Pragmatic level - It could mean: -A marriage proposal. -A request for a divorce. -A directive to start a magical quest.

The Complexity of Defining Meaning

Semantics is the linguistic study of meaning, but defining "meaning" is complex. Examples of different uses of "meaning" include: -Purpose: "She means no harm." -Significance "Many of our patients lack meaning in their lives." -Intention "Does your job make a meaningful contribution to society?"

The Scope of Linguistic Meaning

Not all linguistic meaning falls under semantics. It generally covers the content communicated through language, like the factual statement "It's raining".

Focus of Semantics

Semantics focuses on "descriptive meaning," which is the objective content of a message that can be confirmed or refuted. For example, it deals with "it's raining" as a weather statement rather than a way to decline an invitation .

Strong vs. Powerful

- Strong/powerful argument - Strong coffee (not powerful) - Powerful engine (not strong) "You shall know a word by the company it keeps"

Three Approaches to Meaning

-Meaning defined by reference. -Meaning defined by its relation to other words. -Meaning defined by a set of defining features for expressions.

Levels of Meaning

• Meanings can be vague (e.g., "teacher" lacks gender specificity).
• Words can have multiple dictionary entries (e.g., "bark" as noun and verb).
• Homophones sound the same but have different meanings (e.g., "flour"/"flower").
• Polysemous words have metaphorical meanings (e.g., "mole" as animal and detective) (Culpeper et al. 2018, Ch. 9).

Examples of Meaning

- "I request permission to remove my drawers in the kitchen." - "The person next door has a large erection in his back garden which is unsightly and dangerous."

The Referential Approach: Defining "Reference"

Relating a linguistic form to something outside of language is called reference. For example, in the phrase "the steak," the words are the referring expression, and the actual piece of beef is the referent

Types of Reference

• Definite Reference The referent can be identified by the reader.
• Indefinite Reference The speaker assumes the listener cannot identify the referent.

Example of Reference Types

"Mary saw a movie last week. The movie was not very interesting."

Individuative vs. Generic Reference

• Individuative Reference, Refers to specific instances of an entity.
• Generic Reference, Refers to a general kind.

Examples of Individuative and Generic Reference

- Generic: "The lion is a mammal." - Individuative: "The lion jumped at me."

John Stuart Mill's Approach to Meaning

John Stuart Mill (1806-1873) defined words as marks that evoke thoughts similar to previous ones in our minds. Words are names of things, not just ideas. Mill categorised names as: -Concrete/Abstract -General/Individual -Connotative/Non-connotative

Denotation vs. Connotation

• Denotation: The reference or actual entities a term applies to.
• Connotation: The properties or attributes that the term signifies.

Example of Denotation and Connotation

The term "man" connotes humanity and denotes individuals like Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. Mill argued that knowing the denotation (list of entities) does not necessarily mean understanding the connotation (meaning).

Critique of Mill's Ideas

Understanding a sentence relies more on the connotation than the denotation. For instance, understanding "white" involves grasping the property of whiteness, not all white objects.

Examples of Referential Expressions

• "Robin's mentor" and "the Joker's arch-enemy" show how different expressions can refer to the same person.
• "The dog must be dangerous" and "We are opening the door slowly" demonstrate how context affects meaning.