Communicative Competence: Analysis of Its Components and Theories

Justification for Communicative Competence in Education

Maite Calatayud Puerto. Oposiciones de secundaria. Temario de inglés.maitecp82@hotmail.com
The topic in question is one of the most relevant when teaching secondary and
bachillerato school students, since they are expected to develop reading,
listening, speaking and writing skills and learn how to produce and understand
different types of texts and registers at these levels. In addition, communication
is basic to human beings, and it appears in every utterance and in any
language, also in Spanish and in English. That is why the curriculum includes
the development of the communicative competence at secondary and
bachillerato levels.

Bibliographical Resources for Communicative Competence

The content of this topic is based mainly on Halliday and Hasan's (1989)
theories, especially those included in their Language, Context and Text:
Aspects of Language in a Social-Semiotic Perspective. Quite significant are
also the works by Canale and Swain's (1980) Theoretical bases of
communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing, Corder's
(1967) The significance of learners' errors and (1983) Strategies of
communication, Faerch and Kasper (1983) Strategies in Interlanguage
Communication and Plans and strategies in foreign language communication,
Tarone, Cohen and Dumas' (1983) A closer look at some interlanguage
terminology: a framework for communication strategies, Chomsky's (1975)
Reflections on Language, Skinner's (1992) Verbal Behaviour, Grice's (1975)
Logic and Conversation and Hymes' (1972) On communicative competence.

Introduction to Communicative Competence

For most of its history, the concept of communication has always been
approached from different disciplines, such as anthropology, psychology, or
sociology among others, in order to provide an appropriate definition for the
term. According to linguist Canale, "Communication is understood as the
exchange and negotiation of information between at least two individuals
through the use of verbal and non-verbal symbols, oral and written/visual
modes and production and comprehension processes." We will deal with the
communicative competence as a whole first, and then we will focus our study
on its several components.

Understanding Communicative Competence

The term of communicative competence was first coined by linguist Hymes in
relation to the speaker's knowledge of how to use the language appropriately. It
parallels Chomsky's distinction of linguistic competence and linguistic
performance. Apart from the linguistic knowledge, the use of the language in
appropriate ways to fulfill proper social functions requires other types of
knowledge (social, strategic ... ).

Approaches to Linguistic Competence

There are different approaches when we deal with linguistic competence:
a) The behaviourist theory is based on Skinner's approach. According to
him, the verbal behaviour is conditioned by reinforcement until
transformed into habits that coincide with adult models. Language
competence is acquired following the pattern: perception of the model -
imitation of sounds and patterns - reinforcement with approval and
disapproval - repetition becomes a habit.
b) The mentalist theory is based on Chomsky's approach. He said that
habit formation theory cannot explain the process of acquiring the
underlying rules of a language, and although speakers are exposed to
different actual speech (language performance), they arrive at the same
underlying rules (linguistic competence). Underlying actual behaviour is a
complex system of rules because speakers formulate an infinite number
of sentences (creativity of the language). And the knowledge of grammar
rules (linguistic competence) is different from actual application of these
rules into speech acts (performance).

Canale and Swain distinguish communicative competence, which they refer to
as the underlying system of knowledge and skill required for communication,
and communicative performance, which according to them is the realisation of
such knowledge and skill under limiting and psychological and environmental
conditions.

Within the field of psycholinguistics, the communicative competence is defined
as conscious or unconscious knowledge of language, and actual
communication is produced by unconscious procedures in the use of that
knowledge.

For Hymes, the notion of communicative competence is the underlying
knowledge a speaker has of the rules of grammar including phonology,
orthography, syntax, lexicon, and semantics, and the rules for their use in
socially appropriate circumstances. Therefore, we understand competence
as the knowledge of rules of grammar, and performance, they way the rules
are used.

The verbal part of communicative competence comprises all the so-called
four skills: listening, reading, speaking and writing. It is important to
highlight this, since there is a very common misunderstanding that
communicative competence only refers to the ability to speak. It is both
productive and receptive. All of us have developed communicative
competence in our native language, oral proficiency and later, possibly,
written proficiency. The acquisition of communicative competence in a
foreign or second language therefore takes place on the basis of the fact that
we already have a native language. So we are dealing with the development
of two systems that interact.

We must also mention the Communicative Language Teaching (CLT), which
is an approach to language teaching that emphasizes interaction as both the
means and the ultimate goal of study. Among the most relevant features that
Communicative Language Teaching claims for, we will highlight a set of
principles that provide a broad overview of this method. The first principle
claims for students to learn a language through using it to communicate.
Secondly, there is an emphasis on authentic and meaningful communication
which should be the goal of classroom activities. Thirdly, fluency is seen as
an important dimension of communication. Fourth, communication is
intended to involve the integration of different language skills, and finally, the
principle that claims for learning as a process of creative construction which
involves trial and error.

Components of Communicative Competence

Today, the communicative competence is the central aim of foreign and
second language teaching, providing a number of suggestions as to how
teachers can give pupils optimum frameworks for acquiring a good
communicative competence. This notion no longer describes just a particular
proficiency or skill, but makes reference to more than listening and speaking,
reading and writing. It is the ability to use appropriately all aspects of verbal
non-verbal language in a variety of contexts, as would a native speaker.
There are, then, two components to communicative competence under
review.

Linguistic Competence Features

The first component is linguistic competence, which involves the mastery
of several features. Thus, first, the sound system and the written system in
order not to sound unusual to the cultural and linguistic ear although the
grammar may be perfect. Secondly, the syntax, or word order of interactions
where perhaps the word meaning is correct, but the word is out-of-date or
awkward, or simply that a phrase is not appropriate in the context. Thirdly,
the stress, pitch, volume, and juncture as a passage from one sound to
another in the stream of speech. Finally, the semantics, or meanings of
words and phrases, and the how, when, where, and why they are used in a
language. This usually takes place when we think of children's amusing or
embarrassing comments as they learn to communicate, or we deal with a
person whose writing or speaking is different to the native language. This
feature is to be found culturally implied, not explicitly taught.

Pragmatic Competence Elements

The second component includes pragmatics competence, which deals
with knowing the appropriateness of communication formats, verbal and non-
verbal responses and interactions in many contexts. Among an endless list
of skills, we shall highlight first, the appropriateness of action and speech in
view of the speakers' roles, status, ages and perspectives. Secondly, the
use of non-verbal codes, such as frequency and pattern of eye contact and
facial expressions, or personal space and body movement. Next, another
feature is to establish rapport, taking turns, and not to talk excessively, as
well as initiating, contributing relevance to, and ending a conversation.
Fourthly, we may highlight the fact of being comprehensible, supplying all
necessary information and requesting clarification when necessary. And
finally, it is important a feature that involves creating smooth changes in topic,
and responding to timing and pauses in dialogue. These pragmatics
elements are so powerful that the message can become distorted if some of
them are missing, making the speaker feel perplexed, uneasy or distrustful.

Canale and Swain's Framework

Canale and Swain formulated a theoretical framework that consisted of
four major components of communicative competence, thus
grammatical, sociolinguistic, discourse, and strategic aspects:

1. We shall mention first, the grammatical competence, which deals with
   the mastery of the linguistic code itself. This aspect is important for
   students to attain a higher level of proficiency where accuracy is
   important.
2. Secondly, the sociolinguistic competence is concerned with the
   appropriate use of language in particular social situations to convey
   specific communicative functions such as describing, narrating, or
   eliciting among others, including the participants and the rules for
   interaction. This competence is particularly difficult to attain as the skilled
   use of appropriate registers requires sensitivity to cross-cultural
   differences.
3. Thirdly, the discourse competence concerns the mastery of how to
   use language in order to achieve a unified spoken or written text in
   different genres, that is, cohesion and coherence of utterances in a
   discourse. This cohesion of thought is attained by means of cohesive
   devices, such as pronouns and grammatical connectors, together with
   a unity of thought and continuity in a text.
4. Finally, the strategic competence makes reference to the mastery of
   verbal and non-verbal communication strategies by means of both the
   underlying knowledge about language and communicative language use
   or skill. The main goal to attain with this competence is first, to
   compensate for breakdowns in communication, and secondly, to
   enhance the effectiveness of communication.

Canale and Swain also defined this competence in terms of sociocultural
rules of use, and rules of discourse. Thus, regarding sociocultural rules
of use, this competence is linked to the notion of "the extent to which
utterances are produced and understood appropriately in different
sociolinguistic contexts depending on contextual factors such as status of
participants, purposes of the interaction, and norms or conventions of
interaction." Regarding the rules of discourse, it is defined in terms of the