Memory: Initial Theoretical Models, Universidad Europea Presentation

Memory and Learning Processes

ue 2024/2025 David Prada CrespoCONTENTS

1. Initial concepts: system and model.
2. William James (1890): The Dual Model.
3. The computer metaphor and the information-processing approach.

• Donald Broadbent (1958): The filter model of attention.
• Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968): The Multi-Modal Model.

1. Craik and Lockhart (1972): Levels of Processing.

Universidad Europea

Craik and Lockhart (1972): Levels of Processing

Universidad Europea

Craik and Lockhart (1972): Levels of Processing Assumption

fue One problem concerned the assumption that simply holding items in the short-term store for long enough would guarantee learning. Short-term memory Rehearsal This view was challenged by Craik and Lockhart, who proposed instead the principle of levels of processing, which maintains that learning depends on the way in which material is processed, rather than time in short- term storage. Universidad Europea

Craik and Lockhart (1972): Levels of Processing Alternative

fue CRAIK AND LOCKHART (1972): LEVELS OF PROCESSING Proposed an alternative to structural models of memory, focussing instead on memory processes. They suggested that information can be processed at different levels, from a superficial to a depth and elaborated level:

• Visual/structural processing (focusing on stimuli's visual aspects).
• Phonological processing (focusing on stimuli's auditory or phonological aspects).
• Semantic processing (focusing on stimuli's meaning).

Universidad Europea

Craik and Lockhart (1972): Levels of Processing Examples

CRAIK AND LOCKHART (1972): LEVELS OF PROCESSING fue SHALLOW Structural

• Is it written in upper or lower case? P R O C E S S I N G Phonological
• Does this word rhyme with dog? Semantic tic
• Does the word field fit into this sentence DEEP

Universidad Europea

Craik and Lockhart (1972): Levels of Processing Likelihood

fue CRAIK AND LOCKHART (1972): LEVELS OF PROCESSING

• The way in which information is processed can affect the likelihood of it being stored and retrieved in the future.
• The more deeply an item is processed, the better will be its retention.
• Greater "depth" implies a greater degree of semantic or cognitive analysis.

> Deeper levels of processing result in more long lasting and more retrievable memories, whereas shallow levels of processing result in memories that are less long-lasting and less likely to be retrieved. Universidad Europea

Craik and Lockhart (1972): Levels of Processing Visual

CRAIK AND LOCKHART (1972): LEVELS OF PROCESSING ue SHALLOW Structural . Is it written in upper or lower case? P R O C E S S I N G Phonological . Does this word rhyme with dog? Semantic . Does the word field fit into this sentence DEEP SHALLOW M E M O R Y DEEP Universidad Europea

Craik and Lockhart (1972): Levels of Processing Aim and Method

CRAIK AND LOCKHART (1972): LEVELS OF PROCESSING fue Aim

• Craik and Tulving (1975) investigated the effects of different types of processing on the recall of words. Method
• Participants were shown 60 words, one at a time, and for each word they had to answer one of three questions (tasks that provoked different types of processing) Structural processing: Is this word in capital letters? Phonological processing: Does this word rhyme with Toy? Semantic processing: Does this word fit in the following sentence? The ran ahead of the group. Universidad Europea

Craik and Lockhart (1972): Levels of Processing Task Completion

CRAIK AND LOCKHART (1972): LEVELS OF PROCESSING fue In the first task it is simply necessary to process the word structurally, scanning the word visually (Is this word in capital letters?) A-a > To complete the second task it is necessary to carry out sound based processing, mentally sounding out the word. (Does this word rhyme with Toy?) > To complete the third task it is necessary to think about the meaning of the word and relating it to the rest of the sentence, or put it into a meaningful category (Does this word fit in the following sentence?) # IDEA! 00 O $ T Universidad Europea

Craik and Lockhart (1972): Levels of Processing Recognition Test

CRAIK AND LOCKHART (1972): LEVELS OF PROCESSING fue Participants heard each question and then were shown the corresponding word for a brief period. Participants then answered the question. When the 60 questions had been answered, participants were given a recognition test. They were shown a list of 180 words and had to pick out the original 60 words, Universidad Europea

Craik and Lockhart (1972): Levels of Processing Recall Results

CRAIK AND LOCKHART (1972): LEVELS OF PROCESSING fue When the 60 questions had been answered, participants were given a recognition test. They were shown a list of 180 words and had to pick out the original 60 words. Effects of type of encoding task on remembering Mean percentage recalled 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 STRUCTURAL PHONOLOGICAL SEMANTIC Universidad Europea

Craik and Lockhart (1972): Levels of Processing Implications

CRAIK AND LOCKHART (1972): LEVELS OF PROCESSING fue Although they emphasize process rather than structure, Craik and Lockhart do assume the existence of separate STM and LTM systems. However, they see the function of STM in terms of the processes it carries out. IMPLICATIONS

• Craik and Lockhart's (1972) theory provided a realistic and credible alternative to the structural approach to memory.
• They emphasized how processes which occur during learning affect the extent to which material can be retrieved from LTM (Medin et al, 2001). Universidad Europea

Craik and Lockhart (1972): Levels of Processing Rehearsal

CRAIK AND LOCKHART (1972): LEVELS OF PROCESSING fue The theory would explain why some things, for example, significant events, can be quickly learned without rehearsal and easily retrieved. The theory also explains why elaborative rehearsal is more effective than maintenance or auditory (Craik and Watkins, 1973). Elaborative rehearsal involves elaboration of the material to be recalled. 1492 1945 2020

> Maintenance rehearsal: repeating the numbers. Universidad Europea Elaborative rehearsal: repeating the numbers WITH their meaning.

Craik and Lockhart (1972): Levels of Processing Elaborative Rehearsal

CRAIK AND LOCKHART (1972): LEVELS OF PROCESSING fue Elaborative rehearsal can add all kinds of extra images, associations and memories to enrich the material which has to be learned, resulting in better recall (Matlin, 2002). Street name: Cruz verde L Street number: 22 L 2 2 The patient repeats the information + the associated meaning. Universidad Europea

Craik and Lockhart (1972): Levels of Processing Problems

CRAIK AND LOCKHART (1972): LEVELS OF PROCESSING fue PROBLEMS Key problem: the way in which depth of processing was measured. There was no independent way of assessing whether processing was deep or shallow. Determining this relied on a circular definition which argued that if recall was good, then deep processing must have taken place, and if recall was poor, then the processing must have been shallow. However, just because participants were asked to say whether or not a word was in capital letters, it should not be assumed that they did not engage in further deeper processing. Universidad Europea