Contrastive Linguistics: Semantic, Pragmatic, and Formal Equivalence

Contrastive Linguistics Introduction

Contrastive Linguistics Unit 1. Introduction to Contrastive Linguistics

• Terminology: contrastive linguistics, contrastive analysis, contrastive studies can be used interchangeably
• Contrastive grammar: result of a contrastive analysis (bilingual grammar) -> the use of the definite article . CL is a part of applied linguistics, such as foreign language teaching or translation

Semantic and Pragmatic Equivalence

Semantic/pragmatic and formal equivalence 1) a. Mia lives in Paris b. Mia vive en París These sentences are semantic equivalence (they mean the same thing) and they are used in the same context they have pragmatic equivalence. The form/structure is pretty much the same, therefore, they have formal equivalence

• semantic equivalence -> sentences that mean the same thing in both languages
• pragmatic equivalence -> sentences that are used in the same context in both languages
• formal equivalence -> sentences that have the same form/structure in both languages

Equivalence in Questions

2) a. Where do you come from? b. D'on vens? These sentences don't mean the same (since the first question is asking "where are you from?" and the second one is asking "where were you before? like a place", therefore are not semantic and pragmatic equivalents. They are pretty much the same since they are using the same typical wh-word, the same verb, yet, they are formal differences which are the subject. In the first sentence there is a subject and the second one cannot be the subject (explicit vs. implicit subject/ overt vs. covert subject). The first one has the do as a do-support and on the second one it doesn't have. In the first and second sentence there is the wh-movement, yet, in the first sentence there is preposition stranding (the preposition is moved) which doesn't exist in Catalan. There are too many differences so that they are formally equivalence. We are comparing these two sentences, not the language overall 3) a. What's your name? b. Quin és el teu nom? c. Com et dius? All the sentences are the same therefore they are semantic equivalence. The sentence a and b are not pragmatic equivalence, the sentence b is formal whereas the first sentence is informal asthe sentence c, therefore the sentence a and c are pragmatic equivalence. The sentence a and b are formally equivalence, in the first sentence there is the possessive "your" and in the second sentence there is the article + the possessive "el teu". The sentences a and c don't have formal equivalence. In the first sentence we have the verb and in the third sentence there is a reflexive verb

• What + N -> Què /Quin-
• Which + N

Equivalence in Expressions of Pain

4) a. Em fa mal el peu b. My foot hurts They have semantic equivalence and pragmatic equivalence. They don't have formal equivalence since the first sentence has the possessive whereas the second one has the article. The verb "fer-me" is not equivalent with the verb "hurt" but it would have to be "fer mal". The first sentence has a light verb plus a noun whereas the second one has a lexical verb. In Catalan we need an adverb whereas in English we do not need an adverb. In English for body parts it uses the possessive and in Catalan it uses the pronoun "feble". Another difference in the first sentence is the subject after the verb and in the second sentence we have the subject before the verb

• light verb "fer mal" + noun (the lexical meaning is in the noun since the verb doesn't give a lot of information)

Equivalence in Actions

5) a. ¿ Qué haces? b. What are you doing? They have semantic equivalence and pragmatic equivalence (the intention of the speaker can be a pragmatic difference). Both sentences don't have a formal equivalence. The first sentence has a present verb and the second sentence has a progressive verb. The first sentence does not have any auxiliary verb whereas the second one has an auxiliary verb 6) a. They ran across the field b. Cruzaron el campo corriendo They have semantic equivalence and pragmatic equivalence. They have formal equivalence. Both are used to talk about the same meaning. The verbs are different, the first sentence makes reference for the manner and the second sentence refers to the path (direction). Manner is expressed in English in the main verb and in Spanish in the adjunct "corriendo". Path is expressed in English in the preposition "across" and in Spanish in the verb "cruzaron".

Contrastive Statement Examples

How to write a contrastive statement This example is referring to the sentences in section 4: 7) a. Em fa mal el peu b. My foot hurts The meaning of pain is expressed by the main verb in English (hurt), whereas it is expressed by a light verb (fer) + the noun mal in Catalan. This example is referring to the sentences in section 5: 8) a. ¿ Qué haces? b. What are you doing? In Spanish we have a simple present while in English we have a present progressive This example is referring to the sentences in section 6: 9) a. They ran across the field b. Cruzaron el campo corriendo In English manner of movement is expressed in the main verb (run), whereas in Spanish it's expressed in the adjunct (gerund corriendo)

Further Contrastive Examples

10) a. Aquest matí m'he despertat a les 6 b. I woke up at 6 this morning They have a semantic and pragmatic equivalence. They do not have a formal equivalence. In Catalan the verb "despertar-se" uses a pronominal verb whereas in English "to wake up" is an intransitive verb. In Catalan there is a one-word verb whereas a phrasal verb in English. In Catalan the verb is in present perfect tense whereas in English the verb is in past simple tense. There is a difference in word order. In English the time adjunct is found at the end of the utterances whereas in Spanish the time adjunct is found at the beginning of the utterance. In Catalan we use the definite article "les", in this case, with hours whereas in English we don't use any type of article before expressing an hour but the preposition "at" 11) a. Me sabe mal, pero el tren se acaba de marchar b. I'm sorry, but the train has just left They don't have a semantic equivalence but pragmatic equivalence (they can be used in the same context). They do not have a formal equivalence. In both first we have the apologise first and then the "but" the constructive element (the explanation of what you are sorry about). In English the expression "I'm sorry" is not exactly equivalent with the expression "me sabe mal" but as "lo siento" and "me sabe mal" in English is "it tastes bad". In Spanish the verb uses the pronominal verb "acabarse de + infinitive" whereas in English we use the present perfect with'just' to indicate the action. In Spanish we use the periphrasis with the pronominal verb whereas in English we do not use a reflexive with the verb 'left' but we use the present perfect + just. In English the determiner doesn't note the gender whereas in Spanish the definitive article is expressing the gender 12) a. Mira els núvols. Em sembla que plourà b. Look at the clouds. I think it's going to rain They have a semantic and pragmatic equivalence. They are not formally equivalent. In Catalan we use a monotransitive verb without any type of preposition required whereas in English we have a prepositional verb that requires the preposition "at". In Catalan we have an indirect object whereas in English "I think" is a monotransitive verb. In Catalan the verb "plourà" is in the future tense whereas in English the "going to" is a construction to express a future even based on present evidence (periphrasis of future in English), it is using the expletive subject. In English the verb "rain" requires an expletive subject whereas in Catalan there is an impersonal construction. The subordinate clause in Catalan is introduced by the conjunction "que" whereas in English there is no conjunction introducing the subordinate clause (seems like in Catalan the "que" introducing cannot be deleted whereas in English it can be deleted). Both sentences have an imperative verb

General Contrastive Statements

Contrastive statements

• English is an isolating language (i.e., it has hardly any inflectional features), whereas Spanish is an inflectional language (e.g .; duke-duchess, subo-sube, etc.)
• Both English and Catalan have three verb moods: indicative, subjunctive and imperative (e.g., John is eating - En Joan esta menjant, It is important that John eat - Es important que en Joan mengi, John eat! - Joan menja!)
• Neither English nor Spanish have dual number
• Although phrasal verbs only exist in English, in Catalan the meaning can be conveyed through other linguistic devices
• All three languages have articles. Nevertheless, only Catalan and Spanish articles show gender and number (e.g., the - el/la/los/las/les)
• Periphrasis -> two main verbs (e.g., be going to sleep/ puedo llamar mañana / vull cantar en una coral / estaba roncando)
• Auxiliaries -> in English aux + LV (have + past pp, be + present pp, be + past pp, modal verbs + infinitive) in Spanish (haber + past pp for e.g., estaba comiendo) and then in Catalan (anar + infinitive - past periphrastic for e.g., ahir vaig anar al cine)
• In English the indirect object can become the subject of the passive sentences (e.g., I was given flowers the other day - this bed has never been slept in) <- exercise (3) wrap-up

Corpora and Contrastive Linguistics

Corpora and CL The massive use of corpora is from around the 2000, people (grammarians) starting using corpora to produce dictionaries. The context of use is equally the same. The importance of corpora in CL has been growing since the 1990s. There are two main types of corpora:

• translation corpora
• comparable corpora

Unit 2. Constructions

The Concept of Construction

1. The Concept of construction What do speakers know in order to produce utterances that other speakers will understand? words (lexicon) how to combine words into phrases and sentence how to put the right ending on words (morphology) understand newly coined words what is meant and what is said language and context idiomatic expressions (lexicon) Construction Grammar: In order to produce utterances that other speakers will understand, speakers need to know constructions. In fact we learn in constructions and each construction is used in different contexts (e.g. morpheme is a construction as well), we are going to study on the sentence level Constructions are pairs of form and function (at all levels e.g. morphemes); acquired as generalizations that speakers make as they have encounters with linguistic forms Examples: e.g. (1) The harder we work, the better the results will be [COMPARATIVE CORRELATIVE] (2) the book [DEFINITE NOUN PHRASE] (3) I've been her many a time [MANY AS A NOUN] (4) She bought a book [TRANSITIVE] (5) They don't snore [NEGATION WITH DO] Constructions are contained in the construct-i-con

Major Constructions

2. Major constructions

• Only argument level (sentences) formal structure + specific meaning
• Hierarchical structure (from basic fundamental to more complex)
• Basic, e.g. change of state (John was a doctor, he was a doctor now he is not), cause and effect
• Most basic: SUBJECT - PREDICATE
• Next (related to number of participants):