Il ruolo internazionale dell'Unione Europea: attore globale e politiche

Il ruolo internazionale dell'UE

Lezione 1 - introduction

Is EU an international actor?

• According to legal experts, states are the only relevant international actors since they have legal personality (that means they can conclude international agreements and that they can be held accountable by other states for their actions). UN has legal personality but not like states (ICJ, 1984). For example, EU can represent and discuss on behalf of the whole EU just in relation to certain topics and competences.
• According to realist political scientists (who do not agree with legal experts), statehood and power are essential features. They think states are the key actors when it comes to international relations. What's relevant is not the state as such, but power (differentials of power among states). International organizations can be considered actors according to realist scholars, but not as much as states because they are not powerful. EU's power has been defined by many as "normative".
• Constructivists (Social Constructivist School of IR) focus on agent-structure debate, ideas and perceptions. People contribute to shape expectations; norms and institutions (also basic ideas) cannot be taken for granted since they are intersubjective and continuously shaped by people. o Cfr. Wendt

Confronto quote PIL mondiale

Global Europe 2050: regional shares of the world GDP - a comparison

• In 2010: EU had 29% of the shares of world GDP In 2050: probably 17% of the shares (it's declining in economic and relative terms)
• o Implications: " The world is becoming increasingly competitive (both economic and political terms) and EU is being contested in many fields · Other countries/regions are rising (es. Southeast Asian countries, India and so on) Question: is the EU able to maintain its influence/increase its influence in terms of power and politics?
• EU is considered a regulatory superpower because it tends to regulate everything. The so called "Brussels effect" reflects EU's power.
• EU is considered a security community in which war is not conceivable anymore and it is excluded when it comes to foreign policies
• European countries do not see each other as enemies so cooperation is vital (and normal) o EU can be associated to the idea of "panopticon" (whose father and creator is Jeremy Bentham): SM constantly control each other and behave according to European rules and standards o Expectations: every European country contributes to keep expectations alive and to shape them o Italy is one of the countries that violate EU law the most. Is it relevant in Brussels? Yes, it is, since Italy is expected to adhere to rules just like all the other SM.

Significati dell'europeizzazione

Europeanization has three meanings:

• · Convergence of EU countries behaviors in many fields· Ability of a country to make its national interests and priorities a priority of EU as a whole (es. Spain when it comes to relations with Latin America, Italy when it comes to migration even though it lacks credibility - es. Because Italian politicians do not speak English fluently) § …

Le categorie di "actorness"

The categories of "actorness"

1. Opportunities: structural context of action, opportunities and constraints
2. Presence: ability of the EU, by virtue of its existence, to exert influence beyond borders Ex: the Common Agricultural Policy (= PAC) - implications in terms of foreign policies

• Tariffs on food imports (that led to protests ofc)
• Export subsidies
• What happened next? > EU became a major exporter: the EU's share of world wheat flour market rose from 24% in 1963 to 62% in 1980, while USA plummeted from 40% to 18%. USA reacted > protectionism > Major poverty in the world (which led to the general conception of Europe as a fortress) EU contributed to the failure of trade negotiations in the framework of the WTO in 2006
• Capacity: availability of political instruments and identification of priorities > the ability of the EU to identify its top priorities. o Vertical coherence (or consistency) = complementarity between foreign policies of MS and the priorities of the EU o Horizontal coherence = coherences between EU countries' policies IT external perceptions

La natura della politica estera dell'UE

Chapter 1 - The nature of EU foreign policy

EU foreign policy is defined as the area of EU policies directed at the external environment with the objective of influencing that environment and the behavior of other actors within it, in order to pursue interests, values and goals. It is:

• Multifaceted
• Multi-method
• Multilevel

A. MULTIFACETED

EU foreign policy is multifaceted since it comprises four related components:

1. CFSP (Common Foreign and Security Policy) It was established in 1992 by the Treaty of Maastricht, and it provides the main tool through which the EU deals with foreign policy issues and the main platform through which it actively pursues its foreign policy interests. CFSP also has diplomatic and mediation duties. It is the platform in charge of developing and implementing the political and diplomatic dimension of EU foreign policy. It is through the European Council and its intergovernmental dynamics that member states can control foreign policy as it is developed in the CFSP. Also, a high representative and the European External Action Service (EEAS) are responsible for putting the CFSP into operation.
2. CSDP (Common Security and Defense Policy) It includes several civilian and military crisis management instruments that can be used to support and implement EU foreign policy and to increase the potential of CFSP. Although linked to CFSP, it operates independently due to its unique characteristics, especially in military operations, which occur mainly in regions close to the EU, such as Africa. It was launched in 2009 by the Treaty of Lisbon, and it provides a platform for launching military operations and civilian missions. CSDP is fully controlled by EU member states (however, when in need, they will generally address NATO or will rely on specific, ad hoc coalitions), and it is increasingly being strengthened in operational terms.
3. EU's external action It refers to the EU's external trade policy, development cooperation, economic and financial cooperation with third countries, humanitarian aid, sanctions and international agreements. All these policies have been developed gradually since 1950 (CEE). The EU has many legal competences in terms of external action and dedicates significant financial and bureaucratic resources to it.
4. The external dimension of internal policies External action and the external dimension of internal policies are linked to the field of foreign policy in three respects: o They include policy fields and instruments that have relevant foreign policy dimensions o They provide instruments and power (that's important in terms of foreign policy action) o They can provide political and contractual frameworks that allow EU to pursue foreign policy goals.

5. Furthermore, member states' national foreign policies intersect with EU foreign policy, but they retain autonomy over these national strategies. As a result, EU foreign policy is inherently limited, with states deliberately preserving national sovereignty in critical areas like defense. Overall, a one-sided emphasis on CFSP/CSDP should be avoided, since depending on the foreign policy issue at hand the center of gravity will differ in terms of the site of policy elaboration. Although EU foreign policy is multifaceted in nature, it is neither exclusive nor encompassing. Also, foreign policy in general is not covered by exclusive EU competences.

B. MULTI-METHOD

EU foreign policy is also multi-method. The European Union's foreign policy operates through a multi-method approach, reflecting its complex, multifaceted structure. This approach integrates two primary policy-making methods: the intergovernmental method and the Community method. These methods align with the distinct areas of EU foreign policy outlined in two foundational treaties: the Treaty on European Union (TEU), which governs the CFSP and CSDP, and the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU), which oversees external action and the external aspects of internal policies.

> So, summing up: the many aspects of EU foreign policy are organized in a way that reflects two different policymaking methods:

• o Intergovernmental method
• o Community method

> This binomial is reminiscent of the treaties (TEU and TFEU) that provide the foundation and the values for EU foreign policy

More specifically:

• Treaty on European Union (TEU): includes the main provisions for the CFSP and CDSP, which are based on the intergovernmental method.
• Treaty on the Functioning of the EU (TFEU) includes the main provisions on the EU's external action and the external dimensions of internal policies, and it is organized on the basis of the community method.

Key aspects of these policy-making methods:

1. Intergovernmental Method (TEU-based): This method primarily applies to the CFSP and CSDP, focusing on foreign and security policy. In this structure, member states retain substantial control, with decisions shaped by the European Council and the Council of the EU (representing member states). Decisions are often made through unanimity, underscoring national sovereignty in these sensitive areas.
2. Community Method (TFEU-based): Governing the EU's external actions and the external dimensions of internal policies, this method follows a more supranational approach. It involves a balance of power between the European Commission, European Parliament (EP), and the Council of the EU, with the Court of Justice playing a judicial role. Majority voting is possible for most decisions, allowing for broader EU-wide consensus on these external actions.

EU foreign policy in practice often merges and interacts across these distinctions. The practice does not strictly follow the treaty-based categorizations; instead, it operates within grey zones where intergovernmental and community methods overlap. For example, certain areas within the EU's external action still require unanimous decisions (like ratifying association agreements).